Propolis for Bees and Humans

The textbook systematizes modern concepts of propolis as a key beekeeping product at the intersection of biology, chemistry, technology and food safety. The origin of propolis is examined from the standpoint of botany and honey bee ethology: resin-producing plants from different climatic zones, the morphology of secretory structures (bud and leaf glands, bark exudates), mechanisms of resin collection and propolis formation in the nest. Special emphasis is placed on the relationship between propolis yield and the genetic characteristics of bees, nest architecture, hive type and the condition of the forage base. The classification of propolis by botanical and geographical origin is analyzed in detail; generalized data are provided on the chemical composition of the resinous, wax, phenolic and mineral fractions, including macro- and microelements, as well as potentially toxic elements (PTE). The role of propolis as a bioindicator of environmental status is explained, and the main routes by which inorganic and organic pollutants (metals, pesticides, veterinary drugs, surfactants) enter bee products are described.

Considerable attention is paid to practical aspects of increasing propolis yield in apiaries: selection of resinous trees and shrubs within the flight radius, optimization of hive design and materials, use of in-hive and external propolis collection devices, including modern collectors. The principles of organizing the technological process are described – from the placement of collection devices and criteria of readiness for removal, to transportation, storage and preparation of raw materials for processing.

Separate sections are devoted to methods of propolis extraction: classical ethanol extracts of various concentrations and promising solvents based on natural deep eutectic systems (NADES). Illustrative approaches to calculating extract concentrations are presented, taking into account the variable proportion of wax in raw propolis, and the importance of solvent selection for the composition and biological activity of the resulting extracts is explained.

The main national and international standards and regulations governing the requirements for quality, safety, labeling and import of propolis and propolis-derived products are considered. The textbook is intended for students of agricultural and veterinary educational institutions, researchers, specialists in the food and pharmaceutical industries, as well as practicing beekeepers who seek to combine traditional experience with scientifically sound technological approaches.